Age related macular degeneration (ARMD) and diabetic retinopathy (DR) are the leading causes of visual loss in industrialized nations and do so as a result of abnormal retinal neovascularization. Since the retina consists of well-defined layers of neuronal, glial, and vascular elements, relatively small disturbances such as those seen in vascular proliferation or edema can lead to significant loss of visual function. Inherited retinal degenerations, such as retinitis pigmentosa (RP), are also associated with vascular abnormalities, such as arteriolar narrowing and vascular atrophy. Most inherited human retinal degenerations specifically affect rod photoreceptors, but there is also a concomitant loss of cones, the principal cellular component of the macula, which is the region of the retina in humans that is responsible for central, fine visual acuity. Cone-specific survival factors have been described recently (Mohand-Said et al. 1998, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95: 8357-8362), which may facilitate cone survival in mouse models of retinal degeneration.
Inherited degenerations of the retina affect as many as 1 in 3500 individuals and are characterized by progressive night blindness, visual field loss, optic nerve atrophy, arteriolar attenuation, altered vascular permeability, and central loss of vision often progressing to complete blindness (Heckenlively, J. R., editor, 1988; Retinitis Pigmentosa, Philadelphia: JB Lippincott Co.). Molecular genetic analysis of these diseases has identified mutations in over 110 different genes accounting for only a relatively small percentage of the known affected individuals (Humphries et al., 1992, Science 256:804-808; Farrar et al. 2002, EMBO J. 21:857-864.). Many of these mutations are associated with enzymatic and structural components of the phototransduction machinery including rhodopsin, cGMP phosphodiesterase, rds peripherin, and RPE65. Despite these observations, there are still no effective treatments to slow or reverse the progression of these retinal degenerative diseases. Recent advances in gene therapy have led to successful reversal of the rds (Ali et al. 2000, Nat. Genet. 25:306-310) and rd (Takahashi et al. 1999, J. Virol. 73:7812-7816) phenotypes in mice and the RPE65 phenotype in dogs (Acland et al. 2001, Nat. Genet. 28:92-95) when the wild type transgene is delivered to photoreceptors or the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) in animals with a specific mutation.
For many years it has been known that a population of stem cells exists in the normal adult circulation and bone marrow. Different sub-populations of these cells can differentiate along hematopoietic lineage positive (Lin+) or lineage negative (Lin−) lineages. Furthermore, the lineage negative hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) population has recently been shown to contain endothelial progenitor cells (EPC) capable of forming blood vessels in vitro and in vivo (See Asahara et al. 1997, Science 275: 964-7). These cells can participate in normal and pathological postnatal angiogenesis (See Lyden et al. 2001 Nat. Med. 7, 1194-201; Kalka et al. 2000, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 97:3422-7; and Kocher et al. 2001, Nat. Med. 7: 430-6) as well as differentiate into a variety of non-endothelial cell types including hepatocytes (See Lagasse et al. 2000, Nat. Med. 6:1229-34), microglia (See Priller et al. 2002 Nat. Med. 7:1356-61), cardiomyocytes (See Orlic et al. 2001, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98:10344-9), and epithelium (See Lyden et al. 2001, Nat. Med. 7:1194-1201). Although these cells have been used in several experimental models of angiogenesis, the mechanism of EPC targeting to neovasculature is not known and no strategy has been identified that will effectively increase the number of cells that contribute to a particular vasculature.
Hematopoietic stem cells from bone marrow are currently the only type of stem cell commonly used for therapeutic applications. Bone marrow HSC's have been used in transplants for over 40 years. Currently, advanced methods of harvesting purified stem cells are being investigated to develop therapies for treatment of leukemia, lymphoma, and inherited blood disorders. Clinical applications of stem cells in humans have been investigated for the treatment of diabetes and advanced kidney cancer in limited numbers of human patients.